Skip to main content

Landless Crisis: Molotschna, 1840s to 1860s

The landless crisis in the mid-1800s in the Molotschna Colony is the context for most other matters of importance to its Mennonites, 1840s to 1860s. When discussing landlessness, historian David G. Rempel has claimed that the “seemingly endemic wranglings and splits” of the Mennonite church in South Russia were only seldom or superficially related to doctrine, and “almost invariably and intimately bound up with some of the most serious social and economic issues” that afflicted one or more of the congregations in the settlement (note 1).

It is important from the start to recognize that these Mennonites were not citizens, but foreign colonists with obligations and privileges that governed their sojourn in New Russia. For Mennonites the privileges, e.g. of land and freedom from military conscription, were connected to the obligation of model farming. Mennonites were given one, and then later two districts of land for this purpose. Within their districts or colonies, villages were to be created in which families received equal allotments of land in perpetuity. Each village had between 20 and 30 farmsteads (Wirtschaften) which could not be divided or sold, but only inherited by one son in perpetuity (note 1b).

A district also had reserve land for future villages according to population growth, or to be rented, e.g., for sheep grazing. Every village was also required to set aside 1/6 of their land as surplus land for other housing (e.g., the old and retired) and trades. Because other sons did not inherit a farm, a father was responsible to prepare them for other trades needed to create whole communities. Importantly, all land—surplus, reserve and ultimately each farmstead—belonged to the Mennonites as a whole, governed at the village and district levels. Under Russian law governing foreign colonists (the Ukaz of March 1764; note 2), and within the more specific obligations and privileges of their unique charter (Privilegium), and as diligently directed and supported by the Guardianship Committee for Foreign Colonists to meet their obligations, farmers could flourish—or also forfeit their family’s farmstead.

A person unfit to farm and fulfill the mandate of the charter at a local level—i.e., as a model, flourishing farming community—would after much assistance and warning be removed from the farmstead which would be given to another. Reasons varied: desire to farm, age, physical fitness, attitude, work ethic, willingness or ability to learn, etc. could be factors (examples in note 3). 

The Guardianship Committee could appoint special committees from within a colony with overriding authority in economic, agricultural or educational matters, e.g., directing exactly how and what to plant, how and what to build or teach for example. Johann Cornies was famously appointed as Chairman for Life of the Agricultural Society with overwhelming authority granted from the Guardianship Committee—which grew as his accomplishments and those of the Molotschna impressed authorities (note 4).

Decisions about surplus and reserve land and their rents were made locally, but policy, direction and pace were unclear from the start.

Only those with a farmstead could vote in village or district affairs. Items for decision might include use of reserve land in the village and surplus land for the district; the head-tax rate; contributions to communal grain storage (even by the landless), and imposed communal fines, labour or imprisonments—e.g., for inability of the landless to pay rent to graze a cow on common pasture land (note 5). Given the many children in a typical Mennonite family, villages soon had a significant minority—and by 1860 almost two-thirds—of residents who were not landholders and who could not vote. Surplus lands were slow to converted to new villages in part because they provided lucrative rental lands for farmers with wealth. Governing authorities were reticent to push colonies on the pace of these developments.

Cornies and others had a vision for commercial agriculture supported by labour-intensive cottage industries, which later included the establishment of the craftsmen’s village of Neu-Halbstadt in 1842; weavers, millers, blacksmiths, cartwrights, furniture-makers, carpenters, shoe-makers, and cobblers were the largest categories of its artisans (note 6). But by the 1840s as new markets developed, only a few of the landless artisans kept pace economically with their siblings or cousins who inherited the farm. Arguably this led to the development of small manufacturing industries (especially in the Chortitza Colony), but in Molotschna that was a minority, and soon there was a surplus of craftsmen as well (note 7).

Moreover, with the shift from sheep to grain farming, farms needed a pool of cheap local labourers and it was to the benefit of voting landholders to keep this supply high. Because of the proximity of a new harbour at Berdjansk and the growing price for wheat across Europe, those with a farm became wealthy.

Those without land could not easily leave the colony to find other land or a future in the cities of Berdjansk or Odessa; they required passports which were rarely granted, and still remained under the governance of the Mennonite charter.

For years cheap land could be rented by the landless for grazing from the neighbouring Nogai, but in the early 1860s they left en masse for Turkey (note 8) and Crown settled their land with emancipated Russian peasants and Bulgarian colonists.

Increasingly the smaller “cottager” village lots originally intended for the old and retired were filled with younger families. Not surprisingly by the early 1860s the Molotschna was on the brink of social collapse. Some criticized the craftsmen for their relative poverty—they should band together in societies or union, for example (note 9), and others the labourers for an apparent lack of effort. Opinions were polarized, even among the Kleine Gemeinde (note 10).

“Only in 1866 when the quarrel over this question was at its height in the Mennonite colonies [villages] on the Molochnaia did it interpret the colonists’ system of land ownership as obliging the communities to purchase land for their landless people. For one reason or another the government [had] never enforced the provisions of the [1764] March Ukaz …” (Note 11)

After the death of “enlightened despot” Johann Cornies in 1848, and with the illness of his heir in that role, son-in-law Philip Wiebe, “the control of the most important offices [of the colony] was now completely in the hands of the shortsighted, selfish men who in many instances could barely read and write” (note 12). David G. Rempel pulls no punches in his assessment of the new leadership:

“The new chairman of the Agricultural Commission, Peter Schmidt, was as egotistic and unscrupulous an individual as David Friesen, the district head [he was removed from office]. Both treated the [landless] petitioners with contempt, telling them bluntly that they would not permit the unoccupied land to be distributed as desired by the landless, since that would deprive the landowners of their source of cheap labour.” (Note 13)

District Chair Friesen was removed on corruption charges; State Assessor Islavin saw evidence of a clientele system, in which the chairman and the landowners who alone could elect him benefitted financially from each other’s support.

Land ownership determined social status—a problem in a community defined in its charter as Mennonite, ostensibly with all the church mechanisms needed to level social disparities (adult baptism for females and males; all baptized males could elect or be elected as ministers and elders and speak on church disciplinary [ethical] matters including banning from Lord’s Supper and expulsion). The landless in fact sought assistance from the clergy—who were mostly well-to-do, for there was no compensation; “but here, too, they found no better response to their grievances” (note 14).

Chortitza’s tensions around land were not as extreme, assisted in part by the early establishment of the Bergthal daughter colony and the Judenplan (note 15).

New villages were established on reserve lands in Molotschna the following years: 1851 Nikolaidorf, 1852 Paulsheim, 1854 Kleefeld, 1857 Alexanderkrone, Mariawohl, Friedensruh, and Steinfeld, 1862 Gnadental, and 1863 Hamberg and Klippenfeld (note 16). Yet the creation of new villages could hardly meet demand—190 weddings were celebrated in 1860 alone (note 17).

The state was compelled to intervene, and officials strongly condemned the Mennonite administration and landowners—though there were outliers, like Wiebe. Not only was all remaining surplus and reserve land to be reallocated to the landless, but smaller-sized farms, or “half farms,” were now possible as well (this reminds me of the movie!). Despite these moves, conflicts continued, e.g., about use of common grazing land.

In the 1870s daughter colonies became a defining characteristic of the Russian Mennonite story, though the legal and political situation (status of colonists now as citizens and land ownership laws) had changed drastically with the Great Reforms (note 18). Again complaints of favouritism arose with the selection of settlers for new colonies (note 19). Over the next decades before the First World War, Chortitza and Molotschna would establish some fifty daughter colonies across Tsarist Russia, including in the Ukraine, the Caucasus, the Volga Region, Siberia and Central Asia (note 20).

            ---Arnold Neufeldt-Fast

---Notes---

Note 1: David G. Rempel, “Disunity and schisms in the Mennonite Church ca. 1789 -1870.” Unpublished typed manuscript, p. 2. From David Rempel Papers, Box 39: 20, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto. Toronto, ON.

Note 1b: See James Urry, "Land Distribution" (1989), GAMEO, https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Land_Distribution_(Russia).

Note 2: In the provisions of the Russian Land Ukas of March 19, 1764 concerning land tenure and inheritance for foreign colonists, families were given land as an inheritable possession but “not personally to any one colonist, but to each colony as a whole, with every family merely enjoying the use of its allotted portion in perpetuity” (David Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia. A study of their settlement and economic development from 1789–1914,” PhD dissertation, Stanford University, 1933, 105, https://archive.org/details/themennonitecoloniesinnewrussiaastudyoftheirsettlementandeconomicdevelopmentfrom1789to1914ocr).

Note 3: See previous post (forthcoming)

Note 4: See previous post, https://russianmennonites.blogspot.com/2023/11/johann-cornies-enlightened-despot-of.html. 

Note 5: Alexander Klaus, Unsere Kolonien: Studien und Materialien zur Geschichte und Statistik der ausländischen Kolonisation in Rußland, translated by J. Töws (Odessa: Odessaer Zeitung, 1887), 269-269, 271-272, http://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=16863; OR https://media.chortitza.org/pdf/?file=Pis/KlausD.pdf.

Note 6: For complete statistics for 1844, cf. August von Haxthausen, Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Rußlands, part II (Hannover: Hahn, 1847), 189, https://archive.org/details/studienberdiein03kosegoog/; and Friedrich Matthäi, Die deutschen Ansiedlungen in Rußland. Ihre Geschichte und volkswirthschaftliche Bedeutung (Leipzig: Fries, 1866), 200, https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gCkEAAAAYAAJ/page/n225/mode/2up.

Note 7: Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia,” 184.

Note 8: See previous post (forthcoming)

Note 9: Samuel Kludt chastised the landless craftsmen for not banding in societies or unions to buy product, market, sell transport, for example, Mennonitische Rundschau (MR) 3, no. 14 (July 15, 1882), 1, https://archive.org/details/sim_die-mennonitische-rundschau_1882-07-15_3_14/page/n1/mode/2up?q=landlosen; continued in MR 3, no. 15 (August 1, 1882), 2, https://archive.org/details/sim_die-mennonitische-rundschau_1882-08-01_3_15/page/n1/mode/2up.

Note 10: Cf. Abraham Thiessen, Die Agrarwirren bei den Mennoniten in Süd-Rußland (Berlin: Wigankow, 1887), https://media.chortitza.org/pdf/kb/thiess.pdf; idem, Die Lage der deutschen Kolonisten in Russland (Leipzig, 1876), https://mla.bethelks.edu/books/289_747_T344L.pdf; Also: Cornelius Krahn, “Abraham Thiessen: A Mennonite Revolutionary?,” Mennonite Life, 24 (1969), 73-77, https://mla.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/pre2000/1969apr.pdf; Delbert Plett, Storm and Triumph: the Mennonite Kleine Gemeinde, 1850-1875 (Steinbach, MB: D.F.P Publications, 1986), chapter 8, https://www.mharchives.ca/download/1575/.

Note 11: Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia,” 106f.

Note 12: Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia,” 186.

Note 13: Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia,” 186: “Schmidt's father had obtained from the Guardians Committee a long-term lease to 4,600 desiatine of the district’s reserve land, for which the son kept on paying two kopeks per desiatin State rent, but leased most of it to the landless colonists for three to four rubles per desiatin.” By subletting land that belonged to the entire community to the landless, Schmidt (and others) could generate significant profits which did not return to the community treasury. The poor became poorer and the rich richer.

Note 14: Rempel, “The Mennonite Colonies in New Russia,” 186.

Note 15: On the Bergthal Colony, cf. previous post (forthcoming); on the Judenplan, cf. previous post (forthcoming).

Note 16: Franz Isaac, Die Molotschnaer Mennoniten. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte derselben (Halbstadt, Taurien: H. J. Braun, 1908), 26, https://mla.bethelks.edu/books/Molotschnaer%20Mennoniten/; OR https://archive.org/details/die-molotschnaer-mennoniten-editablea; English translation by Timothy Flaming and Glenn Penner, https://www.mharchives.ca/download/3573/.

Note 17: Mennonitische Blätter 8, no. 3 (May 1861), 34, https://mla.bethelks.edu/gmsources/newspapers/Mennonitische%20Blaetter/1854-1900/1861/DSCF0227.JPG.

Note 18: For this entire thematic, cf. James Urry, “Context, Cause and Consequence in Understanding the Molochna Land Crisis. A Response to John Staples,” Mennonite Life 62, no. 2 (Fall 2007), https://mla.bethelks.edu/ml-archive/2007fall/; and John Staples, “Putting ‘Russia’ back into Russian Mennonite History: The Crimean War, Emancipation, and the Molochna Mennonite Landlessness Crisis,” Mennonite Life 62, no. 1 (2007), https://mla.bethelks.edu/ml-archive/2007spring/staples.php.

Note 19: “Etwas über Landankauf,” MR 5, no. 2 (January 9, 1884), 1, https://archive.org/details/sim_die-mennonitische-rundschau_1884-01-09_5_2/mode/2up?q=landlosen.

Note 20: Besides the sources already noted above, cf. also Jeffrey Longhofer, “Specifying the Commons: Mennonites, Intensive Agriculture, and Landlessness in Nineteenth-Century Russia,” Ethnohistory 40, no. 3 (Summer 1993), 384–409; and Dmytro Myeshkov, Die Schwarzmeerdeutschen und ihre Welten: 1781–1871 (Essen: Klartext, 2008), 116-127.

---

To cite this page: Arnold Neufeldt-Fast, "Landless Crisis: Molotschna, 1840s to 1860s," History of the Russian Mennonites (blog), November 7, 2023, https://russianmennonites.blogspot.com/2023/11/landless-crisis-molotschna-1840s-to.html.

Comments

Post a Comment

Popular posts from this blog

The End of Schardau (and other Molotschna villages), 1941

My grandmother was four-years old when her parents moved from Petershagen, Molotschna to Schardau in 1908. This story is larger than that of Schardau, but tells how this village and many others in Molotschna were evacuated by Stalin days before the arrival of German troops in 1941. -ANF The bridge across the Dnieper at Chortitza was destroyed by retreating Soviet troops on August 18, 1941 and the hydroelectric dam completed near Einlage in 1932 was also dynamited by NKVD personnel—killing at least 20,000 locals downstream, and forcing the Germans to cross further south at Nikopol. For the next six-and-a-half weeks, the old Mennonite settlement area of Chortitza was continuously shelled by Soviet troops from Zaporozhje on the east side of the river ( note 1 ). The majority of Russian Germans in Crimea and Ukraine paid dearly for Germany’s Blitzkrieg and plans for racially-based population resettlements. As early as August 3, 1941, the Supreme Command of the Soviet Forces received noti...
Post a Comment
Read more

“The way is finally open”—Russian Mennonite Immigration, 1922-23

In a highly secretive meeting in Ohrloff, Molotschna on February 7, 1922, leaders took a decision to work to remove the entire Mennonite population of some 100,000 people out of the USSR—if at all possible ( note 1 ). B.B. Janz (Ohrloff) and Bishop David Toews (Rosthern, SK) are remembered as the immigration leaders who made it possible to bring some 20,000 Mennonites from the Soviet Union to Canada in the 1920s ( note 2 ). But behind those final numbers were multiple problems. In August 1922, an appeal was made by leaders to churches in Canada and the USA: “The way is finally open, for at least 3,000 persons who have received permission to leave Russia … Two ships of the Canadian Pacific Railway are ready to sail from England to Odessa as soon as the cholera quarantine is lifted. These Russian [Mennonite] refugees are practically without clothing … .” ( Note 3 ) Notably at this point B. B. Janz was also writing Toews, saying that he was utterly exhausted and was preparing to ...
Post a Comment
Read more

Mennonites in Danzig's Suburbs: Maps and Illustrations

Mennonites first settled in the Danzig suburb of Schottland (lit: "Scotland"; “Stare-Szkoty”; also “Alt-Schottland”) in the mid-1500s. “Danzig” is the oldest and most important Mennonite congregation in Prussia. Menno Simons visited Schottland and Dirk Phillips was its first elder and lived here for a time. Two centuries later the number of families from the suburbs of Danzig that immigrated to Russia was not large: Stolzenberg 5, Schidlitz 3, Alt-Schottland 2, Ohra 1, Langfuhr 1, Emaus 1, Nobel 1, and Krampetz 2 ( map 1 ). However most Russian Mennonites had at least some connection to the Danzig church—whether Frisian or Flemish—if not in the 1700s, then in 1600s. Map 2  is from 1615; a larger number of Mennonites had been in Schottland at this point for more than four decades. Its buildings are not rural but look very Dutch urban/suburban in style. These were weavers, merchants and craftsmen, and since the 17th century they lived side-by-side with a larger number of Jews a...
Post a Comment
Read more

Sesquicentennial: Proclamation of Universal Military Service Manifesto, January 1, 1874

One-hundred-and-fifty years ago Tsar Alexander II proclaimed a new universal military service requirement into law, which—despite the promises of his predecesors—included Russia’s Mennonites. This act fundamentally changed the course of the Russian Mennonite story, and resulted in the emigration of some 17,000 Mennonites. The Russian government’s intentions in this regard were first reported in newspapers in November 1870 ( note 1 ) and later confirmed by Senator Evgenii von Hahn, former President of the Guardianship Committee ( note 2 ). Some Russian Mennonite leaders were soon corresponding with American counterparts on the possibility of mass migration ( note 3 ). Despite painful internal differences in the Mennonite community, between 1871 and Fall 1873 they put up a united front with five joint delegations to St. Petersburg and Yalta to petition for a Mennonite exemption. While the delegations were well received and some options could be discussed with ministers of the Crown, ...
Post a Comment
Read more

On Becoming the Quiet in the Land

They are fair questions: “What happened to the firebrands of the Reformation? How did the movement become so withdrawn--even "dour and unexciting,” according to one historian? Mennonites originally referred to themselves as the “quiet in the land” in contrast to the militant--definitely more exciting--militant revolutionaries of Münster ( note 1 ), and identification with Psalm 35:19f.: “Let not my enemies gloat over me … For they do not speak peace, but they devise deceitful schemes against those who live quietly in the land.” How did Mennonites become the “quiet in the land” in Royal Prussia? Minority non-citizen groups in Poland like Jews, Scots, Huguenots or the much smaller body of Mennonites did not enjoy full political or economic rights as citizens. Ecclesial and civil laws left linguistic or religious minorities vulnerable to extortion. Such groups sought to negotiate a Privilegium or charter with the king, which set out a legal basis for some protections of life an...
Post a Comment
Read more

Mennonite-Designed Mosque on the Molotschna

The “Peter J. Braun Archive" is a mammoth 78 reel microfilm collection of Russian Mennonite materials from 1803 to 1920 -- and largely still untapped by researchers ( note 1 ). In the files of Philipp Wiebe, son-in-law and heir to Johann Cornies, is a blueprint for a mosque ( pic ) as well as another file entitled “Akkerman Mosque Construction Accounts, 1850-1859” ( note 2 ). The Molotschna Mennonites were settlers on traditional Nogai lands; their Nogai neighbours were a nomadic, Muslim Tartar group. In 1825, Cornies wrote a significant anthropological report on the Nogai at the request of the Guardianship Committee, based largely on his engagements with these neighbours on Molotschna’s southern border ( note 3 ). Building upon these experiences and relationships, in 1835 Cornies founded the Nogai agricultural colony “Akkerman” outside the southern border of the Molotschna Colony. Akkerman was a projection of Cornies’ ideal Mennonite village outlined in exacting detail, with un...
Post a Comment
Read more

The Tinkelstein Family of Chortitza-Rosenthal (Ukraine)

Chortitza was the first Mennonite settlement in "New Russia" (later Ukraine), est. 1789. The last Mennonites left in 1943 ( note 1 ). During the Stalin years in Ukraine (after 1928), marriage with Jewish neighbours—especially among better educated Mennonites in cities—had become somewhat more common. When the Germans arrived mid-August 1941, however, it meant certain death for the Jewish partner and usually for the children of those marriages. A family friend, Peter Harder, died in 2022 at age 96. Peter was born in Osterwick to a teacher and grew up in Chortitza. As a 16-year-old in 1942, Peter was compelled by occupying German forces to participate in the war effort. Ukrainians and Russians (prisoners of war?) were used by the Germans to rebuild the massive dam at Einlage near Zaporizhzhia, and Peter was engaged as a translator. In the next year he changed focus and started teachers college, which included significant Nazi indoctrination. In 2017 I interviewed Peter Ha...
Post a Comment
Read more

Fraktur (or Gothic) font and Kurrent- (or Sütterlin) handwriting: Nazi ban, 1941

In the middle of the war on January 1, 1942, the Winnipeg-based Mennonitische Rundschau published a new issue without the familiar Fraktur script masthead ( note 1 ). One might speculate on the reasons, but a year earlier Hitler banned the use of the font in the Reich . The Rundschau did not exactly follow all orders from Berlin—the rest of the paper was in Fraktur (sometimes referred to as "Gothic"); when the war ended in 1945, the Rundschau reintroduced the Fraktur font for its masthead. It wasn’t until the 1960s that an issue might have a page or title here or there with the “normal” or Latin font, even though post-war Germany was no longer using Fraktur . By 1973 only the Rundschau masthead is left in Fraktur , and that is only removed in December 1992. Attached is a copy of Nazi Party Secretary Martin Bormann's official letter dated January 3, 1941, which prohibited the use of Fraktur fonts "by order of the Führer. " Why? It was a Jewish invention, apparent...
1 comment
Read more

School Reports, 1890s

Mennonite memoirs typically paint a golden picture of schools in the so-called “golden era” of Mennonite life in Russia. The official “Reports on Molotschna Schools: 1895/96 and 1897/98,” however, give us a more lackluster and realistic picture ( note 1 ). What do we learn from these reports? Many schools had minor infractions—the furniture did not correspond to requirements, there were insufficient book cabinets, or the desks and benches were too old and in need of repair. The Mennonite schoolhouses in Halbstadt and Rudnerweide—once recognized as leading and exceptional—together with schools in Friedensruh, Fürstenwerder, Franzthal, and Blumstein were deemed to be “in an unsatisfactory state.” In other cases a new roof and new steps were needed, or the rooms too were too small, too dark, too cramped, or with moist walls. More seriously in some villages—Waldheim, Schönsee, Fabrikerwiese, and even Gnadenfeld, well-known for its educational past—inspectors recorded that pupils “do not ...
Post a Comment
Read more

Formidable Fräulein Marga Bräul (1919–2011)

Fräulein Bräul left an indelible mark on two generations of high school students in the Mennonite Colony of Fernheim, Paraguay. Former students and acquaintances recall that Marga Bräul demanded the highest effort and achievements of her students, colleagues and of herself—the kind of teacher you either love or hate but will never forget! In March 1947, Marga was offered a position at the Fernheim Secondary School ( Zentralschule ). A recent refugee to Paraguay from war-torn Europe, she taught mathematics, physics, and chemistry. In 1952, she was the only female faculty member ( note 1 ). Marga wedded a strong commitment to academics with a passion for quality arts and crafts. She provided extensive extra-curricular instruction to students in handiwork and was especially renowned for her artwork—which included painting and woodworking— end of year art exhibits with students, theatre sets, and festival decorations. Marga’s pedagogical philosophy was holistic; she told Mennonite ed...
Post a Comment
Read more